Phd Comprehensive Exam. in Leadership

Comprehensive trial Written Responses Presented in Partial Fulfillment Of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of school of feeling by George E. Anderson III loss attr fillship School of Business and Technology genus G exclusivelyinago University QUESTION 1 The complex method has recently become a popular method of search. Analyze and comp be the mixed method, soft and decimal look methods. Evaluate the effectiveness of each as a reason fitting method of query on models of armament lead. IntroductionThe sociological effects discussed by Kuhn (1996) as to the institutionalization of knowledge simulacrums, whitethorn account for the fact thither is a grand get crosswise of concurrence as to the character of two soft and valued study methods. there seems to be al closely universal take holdment as to the epi bowological and abstractive roots of each methodological analysis. at that place is however, take c argon equal disagreement as to the appropriat eness of iodin methodology over the other. The tecs mentation of populace is the cornerst wizard to all other assumptions, that is, what is misinterpreted here predicates the look intoers other assumptions (Holden & Lynch, 2004).Both quantifiable and soft methodological purists view their paradigms as the ideal for research ( earth-closetson & Onwuegbuzie, 2004). While making the theme for their chosen panache of research, m whatsoever quantitative and soft researchers both implicitly and utteredly argue the inadequacy of research paradigms other than their consume. Quantitative research methodology starts with an objectivist epistemological assumption and logically break downs through the theoretical prospect of favourableness. A ositivistic quantitative researcher entrusts that in the universe subjects exist as inwardnessful entities independently of consciousness and meet (Crotty, 1998, p. 5). The world view of an objectivist revolves roughly the ontological a ssumption that the amicable world international, to unmarried cognition is a real world do up of hard, tangible and relatively invariant structures. In other rowing, the kindly world exists independently of an wizard(a)s appreciation of it(Burrell and Morgan, 1979).In line of products, the soft research methodology flows from the epistemologies of constructionism and prevail overivism, and the interpretive or trans pretendative theoretical locatings. For the epistemology of subjectivity the accessible world orthogonal to mortal cognition is made up of nonhing to a greater extent(prenominal) than names, theorys and labels which ar intaked as simulated creations, whose utility is based upon their convenience as tools for describing, making sense of, and negotiating the outside(a) world(Burrell and Morgan, 1979).For a qualitative researcher military man demeanour depends on how privates interpret the conditions in which they find themselves and social reality is regarded as the overlap of processes by which social actors negotiate the substances for acts and situations (Blaikie, 1991). Meaning is non discovered, still constructed. diverse hoi polloi may construct meaning in different routes (Crotty, 1998). The struggles in the underlying assumptions of the quantitative and qualitative paradigms leave in differences which buy the farm beyond philosophical and methodological debates (Sale, Lohfeld, & Brazil, 2002). Quantitative look forQuantitative explore de cook Initially, quantitative sociological research methodology was amplifyed as an extension of living scientific research into the nature of the universe. The purpose of research is to discover answers to motility through the application of scientific procedures (Baker, 2001). Chemistry, astronomy, mathematics and geology argon all accusing, quantitative cognizances which ar governed by the convenings of inquiry known as the scientific method. as substantially for the social objectivists researcher, human activity is understood as observable style taking place in observable, material circumstances (Blaikie, 1991).Social objectivists draw their research technical schoolniques from the hard attainments and attempt to follow a comparable scientific methodology . The major goal of objectivists is aligned with that of the natural scientists they identify causal explanations and rudimentary laws that explain regularities in human social deportment (Holden & Lynch, 2004). Logical positivism functions quantitative and experi amiable methods to hear hypothetical deductive generalizations (Karami, Rowley, & Analoui, 2006). Social erudition is characterized by falsifiable research all phenomena washstand be minify to empirical indicators which represent the truth (Sale et al. 2002). positivistic research assumes social reality is a complex of causal relations amidst objects and causes of human behavior which argon external to the pers on (Schulenberg, 2007). Einstein discovered the laws of the universe. The attempt by objectivists to discover the laws human social inter executions logically follows. Quantitative Research Techniques Research methodology is influenced by the logic of experimental formulas derived to a greater extent a great deal than not from biological science (Lee, 1992).For a researcher in the hard sciences to validly look at any(prenominal)(prenominal) phenomenon, the researcher moldiness(prenominal) be detached and separate from the phenomenon organism studied. big(a) scientists believe that if the researcher interferes with the phenomenon in both way the value of the playing bea is reduced or negated. Social objectivists perceive that their studies arsehole be (and of need need be) through independently of what is be discover and that their interests, values, beliefs, etc. ordain chip in no influence on what they tuition or what methods they use (Holden & Lynch, 2004).It is the belief of the positivist school that for a quantitative social researcher to validly look at any phenomenon, the researcher must resemblingwise be activatedly and intellectually detached from the objects of their teach and the methods of their study. Their conclusions must not be influenced by interference or prejudice. The view that quantitative research is ordinarily confined to filling in questionnaires, paper & pencil-style or administered on bankers bill (Koller, 2008) is not entirely correct. Quantitative researchers utilize three basic designs observation, experiment and survey. Baker, 2001) Observation is ordinarily the kickoff step in the scientific method. It is not dim-witted viewing rather observation consists of the systematic gathering, recording and compend of information (Baker, 2001). Experimental research design is usually undertaken to determine if there is a causal relationship between the variables under investigation (Baker, 2001). However, in social research there be serious questions as to any experimental construct. Has the experiment, by its real(prenominal) structure, destroyed the objectivity so prized by quantitative researchers and introduced statistical bias which would limit its value?Is the experimental design inwardly an ethical and honorable frame which has been enjoyd by an institutional Review Board (IRB). Survey research is perhaps the most common quantitative research method. The overall technique is divided into three subsets factual, discernment and interpretive. Factual surveys are touch on with securing hard, quantitative selective information. For example, determining the median get on with of a population ability be touchd through a simple survey asking souls their date of birth.Opinion surveys are to acquire hard data on respondents views upon the topic at hand, for example asking members of the sample if they approve or disapprove of a proposed bill before congress. Interpretive surve ys are used in circumstances where the respondent is asked to explain wherefore they nail accompaniment beliefs or be keep back in a picky way (Baker, 2001). The whiz advantage of the survey method is its ability to sample a population and from that sample to be able to draw statistically practicable inferences for the entire population from the takes. (Dale, 2006) Many surveys use techniques to reduce data bourne of fight costs.Such techniques run the risk of introducing statistical errors resulting in err iodineous conclusions. If sampling errors are not corrected, results may appear to reach statistical significance level when in fact they do not (Dale, 2006). Further, a survey operator is constructed by tribe and because of the subjectivity built into its outgrowth, any interpretations of the s loads concedeed cannot be 100% objective (A. Onwuegbuzie & Leech, 2005). The introduction of bias can be unconscious mind or deliberate. Examples of deliberately engineere d survey results can oft be purge up within political opinion research.Questions much(prenominal) as Do you agree with the Presidents irresponsible and broad(prenominal)ly risky course of action or would you support our safe and reasonable preliminary to the question? leave al bingle almost always result in a predictable totally inappropriate response. Finally, although the positivist quantitative researcher applies the take up techniques of the hard science community, they are still dealing with pot and not inanimate objects. It is difficult, if not impossible, for the social scientist to predict outcomes with the like accuracy and reliability as the gauzy scientist (Baker, 2001).The results achieved by quantitative social scientists will not be al oneness consistent, because multitude are not primitively consistent. soft Research Defined The qualitative research method is used by social researchers which view reality not in the hard terms of the physical science s, neverthe slight rather as subjective intellectual constructs perceived by man-to-mans. The battle flag carried by the armies of the Confederate States of America is familiar to legion(predicate) people however the symbolic meaning of the flag is intuited entirely differently depending upon the perspective of the several(prenominal)ist viewing it.For one individual it represents repression and misery, for another individual the same cloth represents nobility and courage. Qualitative research develops a rich, deep holistic cause of the event studied. It is particularly useful in sorting and back ideas, investigating complex behavior, developing explanatory models, and defining unfilled needs. (Baker, 2001) The purposes of qualitative research are broad in scope and centered rough promoting a deep and holistic or complex under stomaching of a particular phenomenon, such as an surround, a process or a belief (Gay, Mills, & songasian, 2006, p. 99) For the qualitative researc her, reality is subjective. Subjectivists.. argue that researchers cannot distance themselves from (1) what is cosmos observed, (2) the studys subject proceeds, or (3) the methods of study (Holden & Lynch, 2004). research is based on the fundamental assumption that there is more than one reality collectable to a process of interpretation whereby the social actors negotiate meaning and earning (Schulenberg, 2007). In contrast to the positivist recognition of reality, for the qualitative researcher, each individual perceives their surround differently and each perception is equally valid.To discover facts more or less any social interaction, the qualitative researcher must share the endure being studied. They must not be aloof, just now rather they must inject themselves into the research so they can integraly recognise the experiences of the subjects. The phenomenological barbel uses qualitative and naturalistic approaches to inductively and holistically understand human e xperience (Karami et al. , 2006). the qualitative paradigm is based on interpretivism and constructivism there are tenfold realities or multiple truths based on ones construction of reality (Sale et al. , 2002).It is super useful for obtaining insights into regular or problematic experiences and the meaning attached to these experiences of selected individuals (Leech & Onwuegbuzie, 2007). Qualitative Research Methodologies Qualitative research can be done in a variety of ways, including participation in the setting, direct observation, focus groups, in depth interviews and analysis of existing documents and materials. What is key is that for the qualitative researcher, The process of data collection involves a dynamic interaction between the researcher and the thespian in context under investigation (Gerdes & Conn, 2001). The analytical process involves an interactive, originative and intuitive examination of the data, all in the search for patterns, themes, or acclivitous insi ghts, each unfurling form the research process and grounded in the data (Gerdes & Conn, 2001). However, by whatever the means a qualitative research study is conducted, the findings, interpretations, and conclusions should be assessed for truth value, applicability, consistency, neutrality, dependability, credibility, confirmability, transferability, generalizability or the like (A.J. Onwuegbuzie & Leech, 2007). The collected qualitative data are disassembled, indeedce reassembled to find uniquenesss in pattern or principle of process or behavior (Gerdes & Conn, 2001). Although, the immensity of validity is whizz among quantitative researchers, this theory has been an issue of contention among qualitative researchers (Leech & Onwuegbuzie, 2007). Many qualitative researchers see validity not as a statistical test merely as being entire in individual perception.Especially for researchers who move from a transformative philosophy, the importance of qualitative methods is that the y can serve as an pulse for cultural substitute as the method explores dynamic systems and processes often covert through traditional studies (Gerdes & Conn, 2001). A prime example of such a study was the memoir Black Like Me by journalist John Howard Griffin first off published in 1961. It recounted the trials of an African American manly during the late 1950s in the American South. The fail contributed satisfyingly to development ocial awareness and was a prime literary work supporting the American Civil Rights Movement. Quantitative and Qualitative Methodologies Contrasted Quantitative and qualitative methodologies spring from very different roots and they give very different qualities. each slip of research operates with a different conception of reality (Schulenberg, 2007). However, many of the differences that are perceived to prevail between quantitative and qualitative research stem from the misconceptions and miss-claims of proponents of both camps (A. Onwuegbuzie & Leech, 2005).Accusations by qualitative researchers that quantitative research cannot attach meaning to social reality often are met by accusations from quantitative researchers that qualitative research dismisses the concept that social reality efficacy be within an immutable reality. Quantitative researchers maintain that there are real causes of social outcomes that through scientific investigation can be discovered with statistical certainty. Qualitative researchers believe that it is only through human perception and interactions that one can achieve a full understanding of any phenomenon being investigated.A qualitative researcher challenges the objectivist view on the fundamental issue of whether or not human being can ever achieve any form of knowledge that is independent of their own subjective construction (Lee, 1992). For example, a quantitative researcher may ask a survey participant who had not eaten for several days the question On a dental plate of one to five w ith one being the lowest and five being the lavishlyest, how hungry are you now? Such inquiry, when applied to a statistically significant sample will lead to a statistically valid number.But perhaps not a real understanding of what that number really means. The qualitative researcher would not necessarily ask an individual who had not eaten for several days, How hungry are you? rather the qualitative, experiential researcher might stop eating for an equivalent period of metre and then record feelings not just of hunger but as well as of weakness and mental depression. In our example, the purist quantitative researcher would pinnacle out the work done by the qualitative researcher was totally subjective and lacked any statistical validity.The purist qualitative researcher would betoken out the cold statistics of the quantitative research results might be statistically valid, but they are meaningless to individual humans. Ultimately, any research method chosen will shake up implicit in(p) flaws, and the choice of that method will limit the conclusion that can be drawn (Scandura & Williams, 2000). A quantitative researcher would challenge the experiential trite of many qualitative researchers and their claim of reality being gived from individual perceptions.If you stand in the path of a flying bullet, it does not librate what your perception of that bullet maybe, are about to be hurt. The experience of being cracking is not get hold ofd. Quantitative and Qualitative Methodologies Compared There are substantial differences between the quantitative and qualitative approaches to methodology however there are also significant similarities. Each style attempts to further understanding of the human experience and this search for understanding leads to the examination of a wide range of phenomena including experiences, attitudes and culture. The paradigms are essentially epistemic, and thus focus on matters that do not impinge on the collection and a nalysis of data (Scott, 2007). Both quantitative and qualitative procedures involve the use of observations to address research questions (A. Onwuegbuzie & Leech, 2005). Both approaches use empirical observations. They describe their data, construct explanatory arguments from their data, and speculate about why the outcomes they observed happened as they did Sechrest and Sidani (1995). They are bound by their Institutional Review Boards (IRB).Their reservation to first and foremost do no harm drives them equally to bear safeguards for their subjects. Finally, legitimate researchers from both schools attempt to build in procedural safeguards to downplay bias and other influences which denigrate the validity of their study. both quantitative and qualitative investigators utilize techniques to verify their data (A. Onwuegbuzie & Leech, 2005). Ultimately, within both approaches to research meaning results from the interpretation of data, whether represented by numbers or by words (A. Onwuegbuzie & Leech, 2005).That interpretation in itself-importance is universal and a major limiting factor. motley Methodology Quantitative and Qualitative Methodologies Synthesized The debate between quantitative and qualitative is divisive and counterproductive. The quantitative versus qualitative contest has often been so divisive that many social and behavioral science savantsare left with the mould that they have to pledge allegiance to one research school of thought or the other (A. Onwuegbuzie & Leech, 2005). A myopic devotion to a particular school of research has limited the advancement of the social and behavioral sciences.The proponents of mixed methodology point out that while both quantitative research and qualitative research share similarities, at the same clip they both have significant limitations and conflicts in their assumptions. Such considerations gave rise to the pragmatist school of research. Pragmatists plow both approaches and reject the assumption s contained in the post-positivism and constructivism dichotomy (Tashakkori & Teddlie, 2003). A quantitative approach might be more appropriate when used to address one issue and a qualitative approach might be more appropriate when addressing an alternative issue.Pragmatists believed in the existence of both subjective and objective points of view. Asserting that research is influenced by theory/hypothesis and by observations, facts and evidence, pragmatists apply both inductive and deductive logic, choosing explanations that best produced desired outcomes (A. J. Onwuegbuzie, 2000). If all that matter is that scientists go about their businessusing methods appropriate to the problems they have to deal with, then philosophical worries about ontology and epistemology are an irrelevance (Hughes & Sharrock,1997).Naval navigators, or marine pilots, for centuries had difficulty determining their exact location on the piddle. The appellative of a landmark on the set down provided a p oint of speech was usually sufficient but of limited value in the shifting immensity of the ocean. When it became important to precisely locate a ships position, a single point of reference was simply shortsighted and sightings of multiple reference points on the shore were added to the calculation so the position of the ship could be triangulated.The more points of reference a naval pilot used to confirm their position, the more self-confident they could be of having a precise reading. The concept of triangulation in research was taken from those piloting procedures. In physical research variables can be controlled with some(prenominal) accuracy and replication of a quantitative research can yield a high level of validity as to the results. Two move oxygen added to one part hydrogen has always made water and one can reasonably expect that formula to continue working.In social science simply replicating an experiment using the same methodology is inadequate to provide a high l evel of confidence in the findings. There are simply too many uncontrollable variables in social science. Americans perception of Arab terrorists was different on the tenth of September 2001 than it was on the duodecimal of September 2001. Mixed methodology first appeared within the concept of research triangulation, or the utilization of separate methodologies within the same study to increase or confirm the understanding of the question being investigated. Increased triangulation should improve the ability of researchers to draw conclusions from their studies (Scandura & Williams, 2000). Mixed Methodology strategies are really straight forms of triangulating strategies with one or more added assumptions (S. Miller & Gatta, 2006). The underlying logic of mixed methodology appears to be the belief that systematic multiple ways of flavour at at a phenomenon can yield deeper insights than if the phenomenon were looked at using what is referred to as a monostrand (single) approach (S.Miller & Gatta, 2006). Any researcher is looking to understand the subject matter at hand and if truth is a normative concept, like good. Truth is what works (Sale et al. , 2002). Then instead of arguing the virtues of one methodology over another, the logical next step would be to take the best from each style, forming mixed methodology, which combine(s) qualitative and quantitative methods in a single study is (now) astray practiced and accepted in many areas (Sale et al. , 2002).Medical researchers have provide two reasons for combining qualitative and quantitative approaches The first is to achieve cross-validation or triangulation-combining two or more theories or sources of data to study the same phenomenon in order to gain a more complete understanding of it. The second is to achieve complementary results by using the strengths of one method to parent the other (Sale et al. , 2002). Psychology researchers were approximately twice as likely to use mixed-methods sampling designs that were sequential than con actual (Collins, Onwuegbuzie, & Jiao, 2006). Methodologies of Military go byership ResearchThe study of armament attractors represents a unique set of challenges when compared to studying merged or educational attractorship. Because of the truly dementedly nature of their business, the tyrannical hierarchical organisational nature, and the specialiseual nature of the employment sociological studies of array attractershiphiphip pose special challenges. Driven by the fundamental deadly nature of the military enterprise military leading is autocratic and hierarchical. In any force, ones immediate supervisory program has almost total control and the failure to obey military commission can result in severe consequences included imprisonment.Employment within the military is highly contractual. There is itsy-bitsy or no freedom of employment. Once a contract is in place, the individual will serve out their time obligation or face s erious consequences. Because of these factors, the requirements placed on civilian attractions are significantly different than those placed upon military officers. Only in first credit line positions does the term attraction apply to military officers. A surrogate maybe a platoon loss leader but higher ranking officers are commanders. Overall, military officers tend to consider themselves to be much more managers than they consider themselves to be leading.That said, the study of leadership within the military has taken many forms. Depending upon the inclinations of the researcher and the specific question at hand, quantitative, qualitative and mixed methodologies have all been used at various times. Military lead Research A Sampling A common form of military leadership research is through the qualitative analyses of historic data in histories or biographies. (Simonton, 2003) By comparing various leadership techniques used by a variety of successful military commanders qua litative conclusions may be drawn.Such studies annul the potential embarrassment of having the researcher draw the wrong conclusions about current military leadership. Luke McCormick and David Mellor in their study The parting of reputation in leadership An application of the five-factor model in the Australian military(2002) utilized a mixed methodology by cross referencing a quantitative character inventory taken by ninety-nine junior Australian fit officers with the qualitative capability judgment reports given by their superiors. The goal was to develop a personality profile optimizing pre-assessment of a successful military career. The relationship between gender role stereotypes and requisite military leadership characteristics by Lisa A. Boyce and Ann M. Herd (2003) is a highly experiential and interpreted qualitative work. sorrowful from what appears to be a transformative philosophical position, the authors provided a group of volunteers from the US Air Force Academy opinion surveys the researchers analyzed. The sample was balanced and the studys conclusions were tragically predictable. (I suspect as an old soldier, my conclusions on this work were also tragically predictable. ) Paul Bartone et. l. (2002) conducted a quantitative longitudinal study on a bulky body of students over a four socio-economic class period with multiple regression procedures to identify which aspects of a students personality could be used to successfully predict a particular students success within the Corps of Cadets at West Point. Over gibibyte cadets were studied over a four year period of time. The study revealed a gender affect with females scoring higher than males. Motivation to Lead Research on the motives for undertaking leadership roles in the Israel Defense Forces (IDF) by Amit, et. l. (2007) was a mixed methodology study cross referencing the authors quantitative Motivation to Lead (MTL) instrument with the qualitative leadership assessment of 420 Israe li soldiers. The MTL instrument was administered to 420 soldiers upon completion of basic training and compared to their individual assessments from that period. The study of military leadership can take many forms quantitative, qualitative or mixed methodology. The form of the research is determined by the researchers epistemological and theoretical perspectives.Each study has the opportunity of providing significant contributions. At the same time, each study contends with the limitations imposed by its particular approach. Is there then the ability to select a specific style of research which might be most applicable to the study of military leadership? This student would have to conclude that there is not. Taken from a simply pragmatist point of view, militaries are highly complex social structures and to be effective a wise researcher selects an appropriate methodology to most effectively investigate the issue at hand.QUESTION_2 Charan, Drotter, and Noel (2001) posit there is a particular gestalt to leadership. leading style is an element of this gestalt. Transformational and transactional leadership styles have been portrayed in the publications as both oppositional and complimentary leadership styles ( bass part, 1985). Identify the distinctions between transformational and transactional leadership styles. Analyze the relevant scholarly literature and cite examples illustrating the influence of these leadership styles. Transactional and Transformational leaders DefinedThe study of transformational and transactional leadership styles has reign the last(a) quarter of the twentieth century and the beginning of the 21st century. Dr. J. M. Burns (1978) was the first to conceptualize transformational leadership. However, shortly thereafter through numerous books and articles, Dr. Bernard Bass became recognized as the major proponent of the transformational leadership concept. Transactional leadership is the older of the two formulations and stems from t he early work on Scientific Management (Taylor, 1911). Transformational Leadership Basss (1985) conceptualization of leadership initially included seven leadership factors, which he initially labeled personal appeal, inspirational, intellectual stimulation, individualise consideration, contingent reward, solicitude by censure and laissez-faire leadership (Avolio & Bass, 1999). Bass later ex potpourrid the term charisma for the term idealize influence for semantic reasons. When compared to traditional leadership theories, which stress rational processes the study of transformational leadership emphasizes emotions and values. Yukl, 1999) Of the seven total leadership factors Bass conceptualized, there were four which applied specifically to transformational leadership. Those four leadership dowers were idealized influence, inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation and individual consideration. Idealized influence (originally charisma) implies that pursual respect, ad mire and trust the leader, emulate their behavior, assume their values, are committed to achieving the leaders mint and make personal sacrifices towards that goal.This dedication stems from three major sources the leader being moral and ethical, the leaders dedication to the organization and the people within the organization, and the leaders confidence in the competence of the people within the organization to successfully accomplish the organisational vision. It is the emotional continuative between the leader and the chase of the organization. Perceptions of the transformational leader are at least as important as the actual actions of the transformational leader.The precedent of a transformational leader is, at least in part, an attribution based on the perceptions of a leaders behaviors (Feinberg, Ostroff, & Burke, 2005). Based on the leaders behaviors, chase will form some consensual attribution about the leader (Feinberg et al. , 2005). It is in such a way that transfor mational leaders can enhance collective efficacy by providing emotional and ideological explanations that link following individual identities to the collective identity of their organization (Walumbwa, Peng, Lawler, & Kan, 2004).A transformative leader has a pose for seeing what is emotionally important to their following. Transformational leaders rely on empathy to understand pursual thoughts, feelings, and points of view (Barbuto & Burbach, 2006). The leader communicates on an emotional level, as well as an intellectual level, exuding confidence and stimulating similar feelings in their following. with this emotional bindion the transformational leader gains their followers commitment to a shared out organisational vision. A transformational leaders moral and ethical behavior is a major key to their connection with their followers.It is about doing the right thing not simply avoiding doing the wrong thing. Of all the attributes of a transformative leader, perceived single i s perhaps the single most important element of their success. Leader fair play correlated most strongly with rater satisfaction and rater perceptions of leadership effectiveness (Parry & Proctor-Thomson, 2002). The importance of leadership integrity can perhaps be illustrated by the speedy decline of the Rev. James Baker and his wife Tammy Fay Baker. At one point, the Rev. Baker was the head of a highly successful television evangelical Christian Ministry.The ministry had a huge following and significant fund bringing up capability. Upon the announcement that the Rev. Baker was being charged with the embezzlement of millions of dollars, the newfangleds readily spread and the ministry quickly folded. His image of moral integrity had disappeared. Inspirational motivation refers to the leaders enthusiasm and optimism in creating a vision of the future. A transformative leader uses the emotional connection they have developed with their followers to express excitement and confiden ce. For the followers, the vision is clear, exciting and achievable.At the beginning of the Second World War, the British Cabinet debated surrender to Germany. The only man who voted to continue fighting was Winston Churchill. He offered the British people nothing but Blood, sweat, toil and tears. He promised that if the British Empire lasted another thousand years, this would be Brittans Finest hour. He instilled a clear, exciting and achievable vision of the future. A transformative leader attempts to intellectually stimulate each follower. The leader encourages followers to think in new ways and emphasizes problem solving.They allow latitude in action and encourage the use of reasoning before taking action. Leaders create situational contexts and conditions in which followers engage in notional trys to accomplish their goals (D. I. Jung, 2000). They understand that to optimize organizational health and growth, the talents of each member must be optimized. Overly formalized orga nizational structures which place the emphasis upon member precedentiality over member talent are at risk of atrophy. In a free market society, such organizations soon fail.The transformative leader provides individualized consideration to all members of the organization. They delegate projects so as to create individual learning experiences for their followers. Then they provide coaching and developmental counseling with the crowning(prenominal) goal of personnel development. They treat each follower as an individual and attempt to be responsive to their individual goals and aspirations. Leaders pay attending to each individuals need for achievement and growth by acting as a coach or mentor (Boerner, Eisenbeiss, & Griesser, 2007). The transforming leader looks for potential motives in followers, seeks to satisfy higher needs, and engages the full person of the follower. The result of transforming leadership is the relationship of mutual stimulation and elevation that converts f ollowers into leaders and may convert leaders into moral agents (Burns, 1978). The effective transactional leader is describe as a leader who can identify the expectations of his or her followers and can respond to them fully so as to satisfy them by puting a close link between endeavour and reward (D. I.Jung, 2000). The result of the emotional, intellectual and caring approach exhibited by the transformational leader is that they connect with their followers. social skill was positively correlated with most factors of transformational leadership, suggesting that interpersonal skill was an potent component in the development of transformational leadership style (Hayashi & Ewert, 2006). It is that connection which gives them the power to motivate. The transformative leader motivates followers to do more than originally expect (B. M. Bass, 1985).No matter what way the transformational leader chooses to implement their leadership, the followers of transformational leaders demonstra te high levels of crease satisfaction and commitment, and less withdrawal intentions (Walumbwa et al. , 2004). Transformational leaders are able to influence their followers by connecting followers self-concept to the mission of the group (Walumbwa et al. , 2004). Transformative leaders are pro-actively engaged within their organization. They feel empowered because they believe that they can influence their environs. (Barbuto & Burbach, 2006).Transformative leaders believe they can make a difference and they can. Transformational leadership is a predictor of collective efficacy and plays an important role in the achievement of organizational goals. Studies have consistently revealed that transformational leadership is positively related to work outcomes (Walumbwa et al. , 2004). Statistically, people simply work better when they believe in what they are working for. Studies have consistently shown stronger relationships to effectiveness outcomes for transformational as compared to transactional leadership (Seltzer & Bass, 1990).Transactional Leadership In contrast to transformational leaders who attempt to connect with their followers on an emotional level and stir them with a vision of the future, transactional leaders cater to their followers immediate self-interests (B. M. Bass, 1999b). Transactional leadership at the core involves a simple social exchange process where the leader clarifies what the followers need to do as their part of a transaction and then compensates them for their effort. Transactional leadership tends to be based on an exchange process whereby followers are rewarded for accomplishing specific goals (D. I. Jung, 2000). Attempts by subordinates to go beyond their assigned chore are by and large not welcome. Followers are not evaluate or motivated to create new solutions for the benefit of the organization or with the goal of changing their personal status within the organization. Transactional leadership was widely adopted as the preferred focal point style enshrined in Frederick Taylors concept of scientific management (1911).All employees were to be treated in the same fashion. consonance was fairness. Transactional leadership is explicitly designed to understandably define and reward in-role mathematical process (Boerner et al. , 2007). The employee does what is required then they receive a reward for their service. Transactional leadership, within scientific management, is implicitly designed to insure compliance with simple pre-designated functions. It should be observe that unlike transformational leadership, philosophically there is not a moral component to transactional leadership.The only moral obligation of the leader is to fulfill the implicit and explicit terms of their agreement with the followers. It may be argued that the lack of a moral basis within transactional leadership and scientific management was the logical underpinning which back up the labor abuses during the early industrial r evolution. The principal approaches to transactional leadership as outlined by Bass (1985) include contingent reward, management by expulsion (both active and passive) and laissez-faire leadership.Within contingent reward approach, the transactional leader provides rewards if follower performs in accordance with the employment contract or if the follower expends the required effort for the achievement of a designated task. The employee participation does not extend beyond the designated task. henry interbreeding and the early Ford Motor Corporation are great examples of transactional leadership and contingent reward system. Henry became pecuniaryly successful and legendary by the perfection of the assembly line in automotive production.The employees of Ford Motor were expected to perform specific functions in a highly regulated environment. For their participation, Ford Motor employees were comparatively well rewarded with a high hourly rate and benefits, but it was clear the alliance was transactional in nature and not interested in potential contributions they might make extracurricular what had been hired for. Ford paid well but was simply acquire their time. Management by exception is the concept where a leader generally avoids heavy(a) direction if the existing processes are operate at expected levels. Followers operate independently so long as surgery goals are met.Leadership personnel are separate from the followers and active engagement with them is the exception rather than rule. There are active and passive approaches to management by exception. Within active management by exception, the leader only intervenes if there is a deviation from expected organizational deed but is proactive in the measurement of that performance. The leader looks for mistakes, irregularities, exceptions and failures and then takes corrective action whenever they are identified. Within the passive approach to leadership by exception, the leader is reactive.The le ader waits to be informed about errors and deviances before taking action. If the leader is in an adversarial situation with their workers, the first the time a reactive leader may hear of a problem is when it has evidenced itself outside his organization. When your company is making its first delivery to a new customer, is not the time any leader wants to hear of a problem with their product. Management by laissez-faire is often defined as the hands off style of management. A laissez-faire manager provides little or no direction to the followers and provides them as much freedom as practical.While, laissez-faire maybe conceptualized by some as liberating, it is often very difficult for followers which receive little or no direction. Laissez-faire often indicates significant emotional limitations of the leader. laissez-faire leadership style was negatively correlated with all the constructs of emotional intelligence (Hayashi & Ewert, 2006). Transactional leadership may be closer to the concept of management than it is to the concept of an inspirational transformative leader. A manager is simply concerned with insuring the processes they are oversight continue to operate within acceptable performance levels.They are not concerned with the establishment of an emotional connection with, or the development of their subordinates. A transactional leader could be directive or participative (B. M. Bass, 1998) but because at the core, transactional leadership is the exchange of employer money for employees time there cannot be pseudo-transactional leadership. Failure to fulfill the explicit or implied terms of an employment contract is emotional, legal and moral fraud. It is quickly discovered and the relationship terminated. The employer who fails to meet payroll department on a Friday, will find few employees on the job comeMonday morning. The employee who fails to perform within the standards expected will soon find themselves without work. Transactional and Trans formational Leadership Synthesized Since Bass (1985) introduced the concept of transformational leadership many have viewed transactional and transformational leadership as diametric ends of a leadership continuum, each style exclusive of the other. Others have seen transformative and transactional leadership styles as simply complementary. However, neither such conceptualization is adequate. The unifiedness of the two leadership styles is much more complex.For purposes of this paper, I will use the term organizational context to refer to the entirety of an organizations external environment. I am using the term organizational environment to refer to an organizations cozy and cultural environment. organizational context and organizational environment are interrelated and dictate the predominant leadership style appropriate for the situation. Organizational mount It has been argued that organizations succeed when they are well connected to external environment. Those connections range across a wide spectrum of issues and players including customers, suppliers, regulators, etc.The life of the organization depends upon its connectivity and responsiveness to the entirety of its external context. That connectivity is considered in two of the four factors of the strategic planning acronym SWOT. (Pickton & Wright, 1998) Both opportunities and threats are to be found in the external organizational context. Some contexts require organizational participants to have large investments in hard capital, such as assembly lines or blast furnaces. Other contexts require organizational participants to have large investments in soft capital such as the parcel patience with its requirement for a highly educated work force.To a very large degree, the effort context will dictate the organizational environment required for long term success. Organizational Environment Organizational environment has a powerful effect on the performance and semipermanent effectiveness of organi zations (Masood, Dani, Burns, & Backhouse, 2006). There is a large body of evidence that transformational leadership has been positively correlated with how effective the leader is perceived by subordinates how snug the subordinates are with the leader and how well subordinates perform as rated by the leader (Hater & Bass, 1988).The followers of a transformational leader produce high levels of subordinate effort and performance that went beyond what would occur with a transactional approach (Seltzer & Bass, 1990). As importantly, the increase effort and performance was accompanied by higher levels of creativity deliberate by divergent thinking among group members (D. I. Jung, 2000). To do this the transformative leader has to establish an organizational environment in which subordinates feel safe in exhausting out innovative approaches without the fear of punishment for failure (D.I. Jung, 2000). Such transformative followership is indispensable within an appropriate context. M ost of an organizations context is outside managements control, therefore the innate organizational environment must be constructed in such a way as to optimize external connectivity. There are some organizational contexts in which individual initiative and creativity are largely undesirable, for example, within a basic services organization, an engineering organization or within a government agency. Basic services tend to be highly repetitive.The development of a transformative organizational vision in an industry which removes trash or delivers mail tends to meaningless for those who are doing the actual function. As illustrative, I once had an acquaintance who was a postman by profession. I indicated my belief that it was the postman who made commerce happen and brought messages with life and emotional connections from one person to the next. He informed me that his job was simply to put paper into the right slots. It is hard to be inspired through the insouciant routine.The re lationship government agencies have with their employees is highly transactional. They are generally dominated by a hierarchy culture, as evidenced by large numbers of standardized procedures, multiple hierarchical levels, and an emphasis on rule reinforcement (Masood et al. , 2006). Within all transactional governmental organizations, militaries tend to be the most hierarchical and transactional. The context of military operations changes comparatively slowly. Because of the life and ending nature of any military endeavor the inclination towards scientific management is compounded.Military organizations are dominated by the hierarchy culture, the leadership style shown is that of organizing, controlling, monitoring, administering, coordinating, and maintaining efficiency (Masood et al. , 2006). Operationally, militarys tend to be very scientific in their nature and highly transactional in their leadership style. The military organizational environment prizes compliance over creati vity. To be successful within an phalanx any individual needs to be first and foremost a transactional leader.This has historically led to organizational atrophy and the cliche that the army is always getting ready to fight the last war. The bayonet charge was one of the principal techniques used by the french host under Napoleon Bonaparte. It became a deeply ingrained part of the French Armys organizational environment. It was only after the deaths of a million French soldiers and a riot by the army that the French Higher Command concluded bayonet charges against machine guns were not wise. The First World War taught the French Army the best way to fight was from well fortified fixed positions.During the twenties and the 1930s, at great expense, the French Army built the impregnable Maginot Line. The line was circumvented in 1940 and the French Army fell in less than a month to the new German Blitzkrieg. At the other end of the spectrum is the industry context of a high tech S ilicon valley development firm. It is an industry context which is rapidly developing with new and outstanding innovations every year. It is a market which is so dynamic that a company with last years technology is soon last years company.Of necessity the organizational environment needs to be characterized by a dynamic, entrepreneurial, and creative workplaces. Unlike the very tall and hierarchical military organizations, high tech organizations tend to be entrepreneurial and flat with divisions operating semi autonomously. If an organization is to succeed in such a context, people need to stick their necks out and take risks. It is essential that individual creative ideas and divergent perspectives be pronounced and shared with co-workers (Boerner et al. 2007). Effective organizational leadership needs to be visionary, innovative and risk oriented (Masood et al. , 2006). Because of the context in which they function a high tech organization requires an environment which prizes c reativity over compliance. Organizational Leadership Comparative long term organizational success is based upon the ability of the organization to align and interconnect with its external context. To achieve such alignment an internal environment must be created to match that external context.The appropriate internal environment is best created by major(postnominal) management with an aligned leadership style the transformative leader for an slack free exchange environment and the transactional leader for highly structured military environment. It takes a transformative tech geek to create and operate the internal environment of a high tech company in a debauched pace industry. It takes a transactional general to manage an army in a scientific and orderly fashion. Hopefully without the atrophy which was evidenced by the French Army twice in the twentieth century. Leadership is not in itself sufficient.It is the role of any senior leader to insure the organizational environment is aligned with the organizational context. This includes, structural changes, job redesign and revised human resource practices are needed to add weight to culture change efforts (Masi, 2000). The expectation of transformative behavior within a hierarchical autocratic organizational structure is unrealistic. An expectation of organizational success by a transactional leader in a high tech environment may be unwarranted. Participative and Authoritarian Leadership Unfortunately, many people equate being transformational with being participative (B.M. Bass, 1999a). In contrasting transformative and transactional leadership, it is important not to confuse transformative leadership with a participative leadership style or transactional leadership with authoritarian leadership style. Transformational leaders can be directive or participative, authoritarian or popular (B. M. Bass, 1999b). Winston Churchill is an example of a great transformative leader however he was not a particularly part icipative leader. Churchill would listen in cabinet meetings, and then he would make a decision. Once made, he was immoveable.alike, Adolph Hitler was certainly a transformative leader, excite millions to die for his vision of a future Germany, but Hitler was also clearly authoritarian in his approach to government and military operations. Transformational leaders can be directive or participative (B. M. Bass, 1998, p. 12). Transformative Leadership and Transactional Leadership Synthesized Such a characterization of the context and environment of necessity aligning with transactional and transformative leadership styles is manifestly much too simplistic. A synthesis of the two styles requires much more.History is full of examples of dynamic, inspirational and transactional military leaders acting in a transformational way. Likewise American industrial history is full of highly successful transformational leaders acting in a transactional fashion. All organizations require both tra nsactional and transformational leadership. It is a matter of position and degree. The intertwining of transformational and transactional leadership styles depends as much upon the position of an individual leader within the organization as the organizational environment within the industrial context.An army is a large organization managed on scientific, transactional principles but an army also needs transformative leadership. A general leading his army needs to be transformational when providing a vision as to why the army was going to fight. Upon assuming command of the Third Army in Europe, Gen. George Patton gave a stirring transformational speech to his soldiers as to why they were fighting Germany and as to why they were destined to succeed. The speech was purely transformational. However Gen. Patton was as clearly transactional when giving orders to his army.Later research documented this effect as was expected from military leaders, senior staff officers scored the highest on transformational leadership (Eid et al. , 2004). Can an army platoon leader be transformative in their leadership style? Certainly, but much more often they are called to be transactional in the accomplishment of the generals transformative vision. In contrast, the head of a high tech company must be substantially more transformational than military leaders. In a military organization, people are standby to the mission and if necessary their lives are expendable.Within a high tech organization, the employees are often the greatest asset of the company. To lose the developers and engineers of a high tech company through the actions of a transactional authoritarian leader would signal financial disaster. Any high tech company needs their employees to be diligent, undimmed and loyal. The leader must be transformative to create the environment which will limit employee turnover however that same leader must be transactional when addressing housework issues. If you want someone to clean a toilet, it is very difficult to inspire them with visions of the future.It is much easier and much more practical to inspire them in a transactional way with an extra dollar an hour. Layering If we are attempting to synthesize the concepts of transactional and transformational leadership we must consider a strong element of layering. Conceptually based upon Maslows Hierarchy of Needs, (Maslow, Stacey, & DeMartino, 1958) if any leader cannot provide basic transactional benefits, such as provender, then it is very hard for them to provide transformational leadership. Grand vision often fades when an individuals stomach is empty. There are certainly dramatic historic examples of this layering effect.During the Revolution the American Army encamped at Valley work on Pennsylvania. Gen. George Washington had been able to inspire his army with the transformative vision of a new independent nation. However, hundreds of soldiers weekly were deserting and few were reenlisting. The a rmy simply had no food with which to feed them. It was the leadership of Gen. Wayne and Gen. Lee who were able to provide provisions during the Valley Forge encampment which overcame the basic transactional needs of the American Patriots. In the innovational business world, the same transactional / transformational layering effect is clear to see.A software engineer may work for a reduced salary in anticipation of their corporate variant options being highly valuable some day. However, the first time a pay check does not arrive, they are rightfully looking for a new employer. The Transactional-Transformational Gestalt to Leadership Early research into leadership focused upon the personality traits which a successful leader exhibited. (Lowin, Hrapchak, & Kavanagh, 1969) There was debate as to whether appropriate leadership traits could be taught or if they were somehow genetically inherent within unique individuals.But it was accepted that a persons personality traits are what mad e one individual a leader and one individual a follower. The difficulty is the concept of leadership by its very nature is developmental. Senior organizational leaders were once first line supervisors. In their book, The Leadership Pipeline (2001) Ram Charan et. al. wrote of the gestalt to leadership. Leadership development takes the form of six career passages involve a major change in job requirements, demanding new skills, time applications and work values (Charan et al. , 2001, p. 6).If leadership was fixed in an individuals personality then a shift in the leadership balance between transactional and transformational as an individual traversed those career passages, could not be accomplished. But a myriad of such changes in the approach to leadership go on every day maybe that transformational and transactional leadership behaviors are more malleable, more transient and less trait like than one might otherwise believe (Bono & Judge, 2004). There is a strong element of sequencin g when we think in terms of transactional and transformative leadership.As an individual moves through the various stages of leadership, their approach to leadership needs to change. A first line supervisor is responsible for a few individuals in a single department. It is the supervisors role to insure each individual completes their assigned organizational tasks. The leadership a first line supervisor provides is mainly transactional in nature. By the time a leader has reached senior management that individual needs to have shifted from fundamentally transactional leadership form to fundamentally transformational leadership form.They spend much less of their time supervising and much more of their time setting forth organizational vision. To be successful any organization needs to assist developing leaders to successfully traverse through all the stages from first line transactional supervisors to transformational upper management. QUESTION_3 According to Conger, Two fundamental processes often lead to leadership derailment the leaders own potential for narcissism and control, and the dynamics of dependence cultivated among followers (Conger, 2002).The fabric for evaluating leadership provides an accurate assessment of strengths and weaknesses based on what it takes to become a leader in our society, with specific behavioral goals, and developmental activities. Compare and contrast the leadership styles between a great leader and a twilit leader. Analyze and evaluate the impact of cultural values on how deplorable leaders and great leaders are defined and accepted. Reference Conger, Jay A. , riskiness of Delusion. The qualities that make Leaders Great, Financial Times London (UK) November 29, 2002 Leadership DefinedBy interpretation leadership is the ability for one person to influence and coordinate the actions of a group of people towards a common goal. Leadership can be exercised in such small contexts as a single individual influencing his or her friends to go out to a movie or as grandiose as a politician rising to be the leader of a country. Leadership can be gained and lost it is always ephemeral. Leadership counts. We maintain that individuals, in high-power positions can and do make a difference in the way organizations behave in their environments (Flynn & Staw, 2004).Organizations with transformative leaderships are more likely to smoothly operate towards their organizational goals. Companies with dynamic transformational leaders are better at attracting shareholders, as evidenced by increased stock prices. (Flynn & Staw, 2004) Leaders serve as a role model for the aggroup members and increased cooperation among the members (Tucker & Russell, 2004). They reach their highest level of influence and power when they have been able to establish a personal, emotional connection with their followers.The concept of follower identification is defined as the condition when members of a group come to personally identify themse lves as followers of a particular leader. (Gardner & Avolio, 1998) They are no longer individuals but conceptualize themselves as disciples of a particular leader. By closely indentifying the leader, followers draw their personal image and sense of self from their association with that leader. (Sinha & Jackson, 2006) The concept of leadership is inherently amoral. Leadership ca