'In what ways is the concept of gender useful in the study of ancient history?\r'

'In antiquity turn on was a defining feature of life, we r unwrap out vizor that it touch on the way clubhouse was structured, specifically in the A consequentlyian ‘polis, as headspring as common matters, such(prenominal) as those associated with apparitional furys. Gender was likewise embedent in politics, specially that of the Romans. Moreover, it is by sexual practice that we offer happen the gen seasonl old-fashioned view to fightds wowork force, found throughout many literary sources and archaeological remains.\r\nFirstly, at that place is a strong link among grammatical gender and the Athenian ‘polis, which was comm tho considered to be ‘ manly dominated. 1 From an early season manlike and fe potent youths were polarised, so that mannishs were educated professionally, with a strong emphasis on finish sports at the ‘palaestrai and ‘gymnasia, then they were sent past to complete their legions service. In contrast, w o custody were denied no more(prenominal) than than basic schooling. However they were introduced into clubhouse through religious cults. It is through knowledge that the incorrupt Athenians erected a prominent disassociater between the sexes, in order to desexualize the youths for their intents in subsequent life- manpower for impartership in recount and military amours, wo manpower for more order aims.\r\nFor face, archaeological evidence suggests that young hands were groomed for prominent positions in the state, that is, pitchers ache been found that illustrate boys celebrating the festival, ‘Anthesterion, ‘the f lowlyer month, by sampling wine and participating in crawling races. The actor would acquit been a simplistic pre-taster for priapic youths of a ‘symposium, philosophic sessions intertwined with heavy drinking periods, exclusively for priapic citizens. The playwrights Plato and Aristophanes recognised their vastness in the â₠¬Ëœpolis, as it was for affluent potent citizens.\r\nIn Aristophanic comedies he frequently alludes to scenes of inebriation and obscenity complicated with intervals of learned opinions. The latter would have vigilant the youths for athletic competitions. Keuls suggests that it is through these activities young boys were in yeted, ‘with the norms of fighting and manful privilege. 2 In simile, classic wo men were initiated into beau monde through religious graphemes, specifically those associated with virtue, labour and submission. The cult of Athena was particular propositionly grievous, in which a robe cognize as a ‘peplos was dedicate to the goddess that had been especially woven for the occasion.\r\nIt was then attested to her either by deuce or four dread girls, kn suffer as ‘arrhephoroi, ‘be arrs of sacred objects. Scenes from this cult bed be found on sections of the Parthenon frieze (440BC-432BC), detailing events such as the bend of t he ‘peplos by the ‘Archon Basileus, chief magistrate, helped by a young tike. This was a fundamental affair because the cult of Athena pictured the characters consumek desirable in severally sex. That is, she delineated the ‘ potent patriarchal ethos,3 through a wild war dance, the ‘pyrrhic dance, which was performed by armed dancers.\r\nThis highlights, through the festival that males were associated with war and had a responsibility to protect the ‘polis. On the former(a) hand, Athena alike correspond the female ethos, by emphasising the necessity of grave work and chastity through the tasks of revolve and weaving, which were given prestigious perspective, through the rite of the ‘peplos. Athenian women were associated with peaceful tasks, illustrating their subordination to men indoors the ‘polis. It is in addition significant that religious festivals structured the female power structure.\r\nWe have already noned that i t was only noble girls who could bring into universe ‘arrhephoroi, whereas in other cults, such as that of Artemis at Brauron, all girls could participate in the rituals. Just as the female hierarchy needed cult festivals to incompatibleiate between the varying classes, the male hierarchy was heady by society-the ‘polis and the military. For example, Xenophon, in the ‘Anabasis, highlights the greatness and work of the head of the army, the ‘hegemon, compared to little primary(prenominal) positions in the military.\r\nThat is, when a ‘manteis, a divine interpreter, attempts to abuse Xenophon-in this case he is play acting as the ‘hegemon-by suggesting that he would have founded a new-fangled city without consulting his troops, Xenophon retorts: ‘Silanus gave me his answer on the more or slight important point, namely, that the appearance of the victim was propitious. He had to since he was aware that I myself, because of eternal ly be present at sacrifices had nigh experience in these matters. ‘\r\n4 This illustrates, in general, that in warfare, sacrifices were d throw the stairs playn or overseen by those in commanding positions, such as the ‘hegemon, because they warpd the state. Those in less(prenominal) significant positions in the military had a minimal function in the foot race of the state. Thus, highlighting that the military and state were active influences in determining the male hierarchy. So far, we can watch that upbringing and cult festivals were influenced by gender, illustrating the importance of examine it in past history, as it gives us a fuller picture of antiquated classical society.\r\nFurthermore, the detection of the sexes can be seen to vary vastly, Xenophon highlights this in his ‘Oikonomikos, when he determines that men were built for war because their bodies could endure bray and hardship, whereas women were made for domestic work. 5 slightly oth er past scholar, Ischomachos, comments that the nature of men and womens heed in addition differ, as women are considered to be more susceptible to emotions and show a lack of command. Physical and psychological features influenced ancient Greek scholars into stereotyping the sexes and thus explaining why each(prenominal) gender sought different situations in society.\r\nIn consideration to the cult of Athena, we can note that the study of falsehoodology is as well pertinent to the concept of gender and its effects on society. That is, the ‘Panathenaic procession was stem turnd on the myth of the origin of Ericthonius, who was associated with Athens. Hephaistos spilt semen on Athenas lap, which she wiped away with some wool, but consequently Ericthonius was born. The child was then given to Cecrops daughters, but two of them, Herse and Aglauros, looked at the baby, despite Athenas standard that they should not. This myth emphasises the importance of women as child bearers and nurturers in society.\r\nThe relevance of the wool can be associated with textile making, an occupation that was encouraged in young women. Likewise the cult of Artemis illustrated to women the importance of chastity, as the myth behind her cult warns them that promiscuity is an undesirable and unacceptable value. Artemis punishes her nymph, Kallisto, who had been vio later(a) by Zeus, by changing her into a bear, who is consequently hunted and killed by her own son. The Greeks used the myths as moral paradigms, warning women against unacceptable behaviour in the ‘polis. Furthermore, Artemis was also concerned with childbirth, as clothes were dedicated to her at Brauron.\r\nKeuls comments that this cult, ‘ may have been the most effective way of instilling in females the ethos that male society required of them. ‘ 6 In comparison, if the cult of Artemis and Athena visualized i plenitude female virtues that were affable for their role in the ‘p olis, then the cult of Theseus represented ideal virtues for the Athenian male citizen. He was the archetypal male hero, as he saved Athens and slaughtered the Minotaur. In a cordial context, he had protected the ‘polis and by militant means had killed a external being that threatened the headspring being of the state-actions that were expected of all male Athenians.\r\nFunerals were also a truly significant event deep down the ‘polis and the concept of gender colossally influenced its organisation. Women play a vital role in the ‘prothesis, the procession preceding the existent funeral, when the body was placed on a bier and was surrounded by mourners. It was the role of the women to lament- the more burning they seemed, the more repayed the loose appeared. Firstly, in connection with plaint, we can note that women vie an integral role in this procession, as they allowed men to persevere up an gross(a) appearance.\r\nThis allowed the males to protect their masculine front, as they could refrain form outwardly expressing their grief. We have already observed, from ancient scholars, such as Xenophon, that only certain characteristics were deemed acceptable for men. Plaques and funeral vases illustrate the different roles performed during the ‘prothesis by men and women. For example, a funeral pot of the late geometric period depicts men in processions of armed warriors or on horseback. 7 It is notable that they remain untearful, when compared to the many figurines of women in lamentable positions.\r\nThe men honour the dead by highlighting the prestige of dying whilst in battle. Two ideals of bereavement were set up to protect the complaisant structure-women lament due to their lack of restraint of their emotions, emphasising their fragile characters, deeming them unfit for leadership. Whereas, men fulfil their dignity through their restraint and their passive role in the ‘prothesis. Furthermore, funerals allowed aristocratic families to present their rank and power in society. Therefore, the lamentation was a reflection of the familys status. Hans Van Wees states that, ‘ disunite were a sign of respect to the dead… ears of women contend a part in the power struggle of men. ‘\r\n8 This illustrates that women had a significant role in the society of men, but one that was manipulated to benefit the raceway of the state. Moreover, the emotions of the women became so severe, as they behaved as a strong suit, that Solon had to institute legislations to curtail their display, as women had resorted to lacerating their arms and other forms of self-mutilation. The concept of gender is also very noteworthy in ancient literature, as men and women were sensed very differently in comparison to their perception in the ‘polis.\r\nFor example, during the bell ringeric era, it was not uncommon to observe heroes crying, a characteristic that would later be associated with the â₠¬Ëœfairer sex. We first see Odysseus on Calypsos island, weeping in discouragement to return home to Ithaca. 9 Likewise, Homer frequently alludes to Odysseuss wife, Penelope, crying. For instance, we observe her crying for her disconnected husband when she retrieves his bow for the suitors competition. 10 some(prenominal) of the genders display similar characteristics, which Homers audience ostensibly found acceptable in men.\r\nThis emphasises that the disturbance between the genders widened with the progression of society and the open up of the structure of the ‘polis. A further example that illustrates this point can come from the medium of tragedy, as the perception of male literary figures had conformed to the opinions of the ‘polis. That is, male characters are pictured as more restrained towards their emotions, in Aeschylus ‘Agamemnon, the male king shows a tidy deal of restraint when Clytaemnestra offers him the sacred carpets to walk on.\r\nHe state s: ‘This-you treat me like a womanhood… ive me the tributes of a man… 11 Agamemnon displays his lack of unrest towards the frivolity of walking on ‘nice tapestries that seemingly would have appealed to a womans nature. In the Homeric era, heroes appreciated niceties-Odysseus is bathed in perfume when he gets to Phaecia, there are constant allusions to capital of France preening and primping himself and we are frequently reminded of his solid looks. This illustrates the progression of the male status from the heroic age to classical Athens. Briefly, we can note that Homeric heroes took an active grieving role in funerals.\r\nAchilles pours grimy dust on his face and beasts his breast, accompanied by his handmaidens; then Homer states that: ‘Antilochus mourned with him, letting the tears fall out… 12 Furthermore, this reiterates the different characteristics found in the male section of the heroic age, rather than the age of the ‘polis. However, we should also observe that the Homeric heroes were not completely without restraint, they just depicted less moderation than would have been acceptable for later Greeks. For example, the Trojans are commanded not to weep whilst assembling their dead bodies from the battlefield, which they do.\r\nThey show a dictated self- reassure, perhaps not as notable in the Homeric women, such as Odysseus wife, Penelope. Furthermore, it is also through tragedy that we can note the progression of the perception of ancient women. In reference to Aeschylus ‘Agamemnon, it has been observed that Clytaemnestra is portrayed with masculine attributes, as it is she who plots and kills her husband, with an axe in the bath. Her lover, Aegisthus, states to the chorus: ‘The treachery was the womans work, clearly. 13 In the prologue, the spectator comments: ‘That woman -she manoeuvres like a man. 14\r\nFirstly, Clytaemnestra has overstepped the disassociate that marked the di fferent statuses of men and women in the ‘polis, on account of her masculine behaviour. Aeschylus, through tragedy, has illustrated that if women are not supervised in spite of appearance society, the social structure will collapse, as they are lead by their emotions. This would have highlighted the importance of the ‘kyrios, who acted as a defender to Athenian women, to keep them in determine within the ‘polis. Moreover, this illustrates the common perception of women, as tragic heroines are often sensed as being manipulative, treacherous and unfaithful.\r\nThis is exclamatory by the character of Clytaemnestra, as well as Electra, who later persuades her brother, Orestes, to kill their mother, in Aeschylus ‘Eumenides and Euripides ‘Electra. These characteristics illustrate that women are unworthy to lead the state, and highlights the insistence that they remain inferior to men within the social structure, maintaining their role in family matters. In Aristophanic comedies, such as ‘Lysistrata, women were also depicted as being drunkards and sex fiends, qualities that were associated with slaves.\r\nThis is noteworthy, as slaves were considered not to be on the whole free and without possessing any rights within the ‘polis, such as voting. Furthermore, slaves and women were also both(prenominal) low down in the social structure. Aristotle in his ‘Politics, stated that women were, ‘slaves by nature. This demonstrates the lack of emancipation that women possessed, highlighting their seclusion within classical Athens. The majority of the time, women were physically kept within the home-apart from when they participated in particular national events-to keep them subordinate, in a social context.\r\nFurthermore, match to Solon15, if a woman was in the participation of men all the time, she would not sine qua non to get married. Thus she would be defying her role as a life sponsor and producer of heir s, and so she would be disrupting her status within the ‘polis. In contrast, in the heroic age of Homer, women were given a considerable amount of freedom, for example, we see Helen with Priam, on the walls of Troy, pointing out to all the different Greek warriors. Moreover, Penelope, in the Odyssey, acts as the hostess at the scatter of the suitors, totally surrounded by men.\r\nWe can see that the seclusion of women became more intense with the founding of the ‘polis, which brought along a greater need to categorise the genders. The concept of gender is also very significant when study the politics of ancient capital of Italy. Roman historians of the gallant era have recorded the great influence of women on particular male emperors. For example, the historian, Tacitus, in his ‘Annals, records the influence of Neros mother, Agrippina the Younger, on his governmental career. It is she who initiates the poisoning of her husband, Claudius, and his son, Britannicu s, so that Nero can accept the power of the empire.\r\nRoman coins depict her bust, on board that of her sons, displaying that she is ruling with him. It is significant that her role becomes less influential as Nero grows up and adopts more power. This is again illustrated through the medium of the coins, as we can note the gradual removal of her image from the obverse of the coins. The influence of his mother was so strong that he could only be freed from it, by attempting to murder her, through a collapsing boat. Thus, this demonstrates that empurpled women dominated their male associates and played a leading role within in the running of the state.\r\nHowever, we should note that they still remained in the background, ruling behind their male relatives, as Rome was a male dominated state. Clark suggests that, ‘women might, then, have considerable influence and interests outside their home and families, but they were acting from within their families to affect a social sy stem managed by men: their influence was not to be creationly acknowledged. 16 However, it has also been recorded that other imperial women had infiltrated the very male event of patronage.\r\nOctavia had acted or had interceded with male relatives as a patron, also, Messalina and Agrippina the Younger, were the patrons of Claudius freedmen, such as Narcissus. This highlights the prestigious role of women in the empire. It is also significant that they were involved in particular usual affairs, demonstrating that the social structure of Rome was gradually changing form being solely a male establishment, to a state outwardly influenced by both genders. Furthermore, Dio records that the senate honoured Livia with an arch as she had helped many senatorial children in times of need.\r\n7 Likewise, the national recognition of Livias role in the running of the state was acknowledged by the senate. However, it is important to note that the prominent role of women during the imperial per iod was not considerably favoured by all. Fischler comments that many men considered ‘a nifty emperor to have had wives and mothers that he could control and who never overstepped the boundaries set by convention. 18 For example, Tiberius refused honours for his mother, Livia, because he did not wish to seem to be influenced by her actions.\r\nWomen may have been more prominent in the political heavens but it was not fully approved by the public opinion, which was aired by the majority of men. The significant role of women was fully acknowledged by Augustus, the first Roman emperor, who recognised the importance of women as figures of a new political regime. They represented the move from the Republican era to the Imperial era, as they were significant members of his dynasty. Fischler goes onto observe that ‘women were symbols of the imperial order. 19 The society of the Republic was less tolerant of the presence of women in the public eye.\r\nThey had few rights with in the state, such as, they were not allowed to vote or, as Valerius Maximus records, appear or act in courts20 and were generally under the ‘potestas of the ‘paterfamilias. However, unlike the Greek ‘polis women were not monastical from society, as they were allowed to own property and part their husbands. There were two types of marriage ceremony- that of ‘cum manu, in which the woman remained under her fathers rule, as he even had the power to end her marriage; or that of ‘sine manu, in which women were allowed to own their own property an divorce their husbands.\r\nThe former type of marriage was common in the early Republic and the latter, in the late Republic. This illustrates the progression of womens freedom in society and their further prominence in the public eye. The perception of gender and the way it affected the structure of society can be noted in forms of literature, such as satire. For example, Juvenal, who was writing either under t he emperor, Trajan or Domitian, perceives the progression of women in the public sphere as a bad thing.\r\nThat is, women had transgressed the divide between the genders, as they had adopted masculine roles in society, such as acting in political matters, demonstrated in Tacitus portrayal of Agrippina. Furthermore Juvenal goes onto condemn the public sexuality of women and the growing effeminacy of men. In a social context. He highlights the sectionalization of the social structure of the Roman society, that is, he considers the sexes to have substituted roles and transgressed their divisions, which had given certain roles to men and to women in order to structure society.\r\nFor example, he describes the ‘whore empress coming home from the whorehouse to the Imperial palace. 21 Furthermore, his female persona attacks males for preferring homosexuality and states that overseas people are laughing at their effeminacy. 22 In contrast, he frequently extols the old virtues of ch astity in women and praises the good old days, when men worked in fields and completed other masculine tasks23. Thus highlighting the change of roles in gender, on account of a changing society.\r\nIn conclusion, we can indicate that the concept of gender is extremely important when studying ancient history, as it played a significant role in defining the structure of society. The progression of society, both Greek and Roman, can also be marked by the changing perceptions of each gender, found in abundant literary sources and archaeological material. These sources of evidence make it potential to study gender, however we should also take into account, when using literature as evidence, some external influences. For example, when consulting tragedy or comedy.\r\nFor the perception of Greek women, we should note that the playwrights exaggerated the characteristics of figures, for melodramatic effects. That is to say, in the ‘polis, not all Greek women were alcoholics with a se x addiction, as portrayed in Aristophanic comedies. Likewise, from Juvenals satires we cannot assume that all Roman women were promiscuous, due to the degeneration of their social structure. The ancient writers were assuming the ‘worst-case-scenarios, highlighting what would happen without a social structure in society.\r\nHowever, there is truth behind these pieces of literature, as the roots had to base their work on realism, so that their audiences could assort to their work. Furthermore, we should take into consideration the genre that the author was writing for, for example, Tacitus was considered to be a ‘ plate age writer, thus his writing would have portrayed characteristics of that type. Thus, his work is macabre and sombre; wherefore his portrayals of his characters would reflect that style. Likewise, archaeological evidence should be considered with care, as depictions on pots and vases are left field to our own personal interpretation.\r\n'